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MasculinitySexual identity is often thought to be determined by sex, gender and/or sexuality. These terms all define different aspects of sexual identity while they also interconnect with each other. Sexual identity is concerned with a sense of the 'gendered self' (Richmond, 1996, p.22). Richmond (1996, p22), defines this self, or sense of identity, as ever changing in response to personal experiences and others' perceptions of us. The gendered self is also ever changing, as people react to stereotypes and socialisation techniques as a child, and as they are involved in relationships as adults. The term masculinity was originally considered as a definition of the male gender, however it has been used interchangeably to describe all aspects of men's sex, gender and sexuality. The concept of masculinity has changed greatly in recent times, as traditional stereotypes, ideas about men's bodies, their sexuality and sexual preferences are challenged and with the emergence of men's groups.Hegemonic masculinity has traditionally been attributed with three main characteristics. Firstly, men are seen as impregnators, who must be aggressive and compete with other males for female sexual partners. They must be able to reproduce and satisfy their sexual partners. Secondly, men are seen as providers who must protect women and their biological offspring by providing them with food and shelter. Finally, men are expected to protect their women and offspring from other men, by taking risks and being aggressive (Haralambos et al. 1999, p. 491). These characteristics have resulted in a patriarchal society where men dominate women and children. This model of hegemonic masculinity, however widespread it may have been, has been changed by the passing years. So now there are many challenges to this concept of masculinity, such as feminism, homosexuality and transsexuality.R. W. Connell (1983, p. 18) argues that hegemonic masculinity as a social construct is defined by men's perceptions about their bodies. The most notable measure of men's bodies is in sport, where men are required to possess both strength and skill. Without some measure of these attributes a man is seen as less masculine which will affect his view of his own masculinity. Connell (1983, p. 22-26) also identified three other ways that men use their bodies to define their masculinity. The idea that work, especially manual work is seen as properly masculine links masculinity to the body. Obviously work is for many men a day at the office so their masculinities are defined more in the private sphere of the home, where they are required to perform odd jobs around the home. A man's masculinity is also defined by his sexual relationships. As Connell (1983, p. 24) describes it "These can…settle into a pattern in which the man's arousal and control of movement is central." This situation makes the man's body dominant and the woman's subordinate, thus the man can confirm his masculinity through his powerful body. The third aspect that identifies men's bodies with masculinity is fatherhood. In becoming a father a man's body is confirmed to be masculine. These categories show that men use their bodies to define their masculinity and then continually confirm to themselves and others that they are masculine according to the hegemonic masculinity.
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The idea of hegemonic masculinity can be challenged through the idea of role theory. This theory has five basic features (Haralambos, 1996, p. 474); firstly a person is different from the social position or role that they occupy. This role is accompanied by a specific set of behaviours with expectations or norms that are appropriate to these behaviours. These norms are reinforced by others surrounding the role, by sanctions imposed for deviance from the role. For example, a man may conform to the hegemonic masculine role in public and then secretly cross dress at home, if he is found out he may be ridiculed and labelled by others. This idea is a criticism of hegemonic masculinity because it introduces the concept of 'agency', that is, people do not have to act out the roles assigned to them by a socialisation process or other means. This does not mean they do not conform, but rather they may end up playing a number of roles.Another challenge to hegemonic masculinity is transsexuality. Haralambos (1996, p. 482) states that most societies have a tendency to categorise people as either male or female. This is called gender attribution, which means that a person's gender is determined by the social constructs that centre on having a particular set of genitalia. Even babies born as hermaphrodites are classed into one gender or another, as society refuses to accept the possibility of alternatives to male or female gender roles. A transsexual may be born with particular genitalia that others identify as male or female but the person themselves may regard themselves as members of the opposite sex. Gender must be determined through social aspects and appearance as a person's sex is not always on display. Thus many people who are not biologically male may be perceived as male, which is in itself a threat to hegemonic masculinity.Homosexuality is also in defiance of hegemonic masculinity as heterosexuality is a dominant characteristic of hegemonic masculinity. Richmond (1996, p. 29) states, "it is assumed that male bodies are linked with male heterosexuality". She then goes on to explain that this is obviously not the case as many men are homosexual. Homosexuality is often stigmatised as unnatural so it is harder for men to be homosexual than to conform to hegemonic masculinities. This is not to say that men who identify themselves as homosexuals do not display any characteristics of hegemonic masculinity but rather that their sexuality challenges the dominant masculinity. As Haralambos (1996, p.484) argued, sexuality is socially produced. So by choosing to express themselves through an alternative to the dominant sexuality that is part of hegemonic masculinity homosexuals have challenged the dominant order.As a reaction to feminism and feminist views on patriarchy some men have created anti-sexist movements that challenge the existing social order. Haralambos (1996, p.503) has described the Men's Liberation Movement as a situation where "masculinity was presented as a simple counterpart to femininity". Thus the answer to patriarchy was countering hegemonic masculinity. This meant that these men had to start identifying with female gender roles, to get in touch with their emotions and learn how to enhance their communication skills so they can better communicate with women children and each other. One of the criticisms of men's groups is that they do in fact get in touch with their feelings etc. but they also continue to gain from being male or masculine whether they like it or not. So men's groups though they may not be very effective are still a challenge to hegemonic masculinity.Hegemonic masculinity has been described here in general terms. Following the women's movement hegemonic masculinity became more visible and so did the many other challenges to this masculinity. It can be seen, then, that hegemonic masculinity has been challenged in many ways as well as a myriad of other ways that have not been listed. Considering these challenges the term more appropriate to use may be masculinities as these challenges to hegemonic masculinity gradually become more visible and mainstream and are accepted by more people in society. Hopefully gender will one day be defined in terms other than masculine and feminine and that these present challenges to those gender roles will speed the day.ReferencesConnell, R. W. (1983). Which Way is Up? Essays on Class, Sex and Culture. Sydney: George, Allen & Unwin.Haralambos, van Krieken, Smith & Holborn. (1996). Sociology Themes and Perspectives. Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman Australia.Richmond, K. (1996). The Gendered Self. In A. Kellehear (Ed.), Social Self, Global Culture An Introduction to Sociological Ideas. (pp. 22-33). Melbourne: Oxford University Press.MasculinitySexual identity is often thought to be determined by sex, gender and/or sexuality. These terms all define different aspects of sexual identity while they also interconnect with each other. Sexual identity is concerned with a sense of the 'gendered self' (Richmond, 1996, p.22). Richmond (1996, p22), defines this self, or sense of identity, as ever changing in response to personal experiences and others' perceptions of us. The gendered self is also ever changing, as people react to stereotypes and socialisation techniques as a child, and as they are involved in relationships as adults. The term masculinity was originally considered as a definition of the male gender, however it has been used interchangeably to describe all aspects of men's sex, gender and sexuality. The concept of masculinity has changed greatly in recent times, as traditional stereotypes, ideas about men's bodies, their sexuality and sexual preferences are challenged and with the emergence of men's groups.Hegemonic masculinity has traditionally been attributed with three main characteristics. Firstly, men are seen as impregnators, who must be aggressive and compete with other males for female sexual partners. They must be able to reproduce and satisfy their sexual partners. Secondly, men are seen as providers who must protect women and their biological offspring by providing them with food and shelter. Finally, men are expected to protect their women and offspring from other men, by taking risks and being aggressive (Haralambos et al. 1999, p. 491). These characteristics have resulted in a patriarchal society where men dominate women and children. This model of hegemonic masculinity, however widespread it may have been, has been changed by the passing years. So now there are many challenges to this concept of masculinity, such as feminism, homosexuality and transsexuality.R. W. Connell (1983, p. 18) argues that hegemonic masculinity as a social construct is defined by men's perceptions about their bodies. The most notable measure of men's bodies is in sport, where men are required to possess both strength and skill. Without some measure of these attributes a man is seen as less masculine which will affect his view of his own masculinity. Connell (1983, p. 22-26) also identified three other ways that men use their bodies to define their masculinity. The idea that work, especially manual work is seen as properly masculine links masculinity to the body. Obviously work is for many men a day at the office so their masculinities are defined more in the private sphere of the home, where they are required to perform odd jobs around the home. A man's masculinity is also defined by his sexual relationships. As Connell (1983, p. 24) describes it "These can…settle into a pattern in which the man's arousal and control of movement is central." This situation makes the man's body dominant and the woman's subordinate, thus the man can confirm his masculinity through his powerful body. The third aspect that identifies men's bodies with masculinity is fatherhood. In becoming a father a man's body is confirmed to be masculine. These categories show that men use their bodies to define their masculinity and then continually confirm to themselves and others that they are masculine according to the hegemonic masculinity.The idea of hegemonic masculinity can be challenged through the idea of role theory. This theory has five basic features (Haralambos, 1996, p. 474); firstly a person is different from the social position or role that they occupy. This role is accompanied by a specific set of behaviours with expectations or norms that are appropriate to these behaviours. These norms are reinforced by others surrounding the role, by sanctions imposed for deviance from the role. For example, a man may conform to the hegemonic masculine role in public and then secretly cross dress at home, if he is found out he may be ridiculed and labelled by others. This idea is a criticism of hegemonic masculinity because it introduces the concept of 'agency', that is, people do not have to act out the roles assigned to them by a socialisation process or other means. This does not mean they do not conform, but rather they may end up playing a number of roles.Another challenge to hegemonic masculinity is transsexuality. Haralambos (1996, p. 482) states that most societies have a tendency to categorise people as either male or female. This is called gender attribution, which means that a person's gender is determined by the social constructs that centre on having a particular set of genitalia. Even babies born as hermaphrodites are classed into one gender or another, as society refuses to accept the possibility of alternatives to male or female gender roles. A transsexual may be born with particular genitalia that others identify as male or female but the person themselves may regard themselves as members of the opposite sex. Gender must be determined through social aspects and appearance as a person's sex is not always on display. Thus many people who are not biologically male may be perceived as male, which is in itself a threat to hegemonic masculinity.Homosexuality is also in defiance of hegemonic masculinity as heterosexuality is a dominant characteristic of hegemonic masculinity. Richmond (1996, p. 29) states, "it is assumed that male bodies are linked with male heterosexuality". She then goes on to explain that this is obviously not the case as many men are homosexual. Homosexuality is often stigmatised as unnatural so it is harder for men to be homosexual than to conform to hegemonic masculinities. This is not to say that men who identify themselves as homosexuals do not display any characteristics of hegemonic masculinity but rather that their sexuality challenges the dominant masculinity. As Haralambos (1996, p.484) argued, sexuality is socially produced. So by choosing to express themselves through an alternative to the dominant sexuality that is part of hegemonic masculinity homosexuals have challenged the dominant order.As a reaction to feminism and feminist views on patriarchy some men have created anti-sexist movements that challenge the existing social order. Haralambos (1996, p.503) has described the Men's Liberation Movement as a situation where "masculinity was presented as a simple counterpart to femininity". Thus the answer to patriarchy was countering hegemonic masculinity. This meant that these men had to start identifying with female gender roles, to get in touch with their emotions and learn how to enhance their communication skills so they can better communicate with women children and each other. One of the criticisms of men's groups is that they do in fact get in touch with their feelings etc. but they also continue to gain from being male or masculine whether they like it or not. So men's groups though they may not be very effective are still a challenge to hegemonic masculinity.Hegemonic masculinity has been described here in general terms. Following the women's movement hegemonic masculinity became more visible and so did the many other challenges to this masculinity. It can be seen, then, that hegemonic masculinity has been challenged in many ways as well as a myriad of other ways that have not been listed. Considering these challenges the term more appropriate to use may be masculinities as these challenges to hegemonic masculinity gradually become more visible and mainstream and are accepted by more people in society. Hopefully gender will one day be defined in terms other than masculine and feminine and that these present challenges to those gender roles will speed the day.ReferencesConnell, R. W. (1983). Which Way is Up? Essays on Class, Sex and Culture. Sydney: George, Allen & Unwin.Haralambos, van Krieken, Smith & Holborn. (1996). Sociology Themes and Perspectives. Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman Australia.Richmond, K. (1996). The Gendered Self. In A. Kellehear (Ed.), Social Self, Global Culture An Introduction to Sociological Ideas. (pp. 22-33). Melbourne: Oxford University Press.MasculinitySexual identity is often thought to be determined by sex, gender and/or sexuality. These terms all define different aspects of sexual identity while they also interconnect with each other. Sexual identity is concerned with a sense of the 'gendered self' (Richmond, 1996, p.22). Richmond (1996, p22), defines this self, or sense of identity, as ever changing in response to personal experiences and others' perceptions of us. The gendered self is also ever changing, as people react to stereotypes and socialisation techniques as a child, and as they are involved in relationships as adults. The term masculinity was originally considered as a definition of the male gender, however it has been used interchangeably to describe all aspects of men's sex, gender and sexuality. The concept of masculinity has changed greatly in recent times, as traditional stereotypes, ideas about men's bodies, their sexuality and sexual preferences are challenged and with the emergence of men's groups.Hegemonic masculinity has traditionally been attributed with three main characteristics. Firstly, men are seen as impregnators, who must be aggressive and compete with other males for female sexual partners. They must be able to reproduce and satisfy their sexual partners. Secondly, men are seen as providers who must protect women and their biological offspring by providing them with food and shelter. Finally, men are expected to protect their women and offspring from other men, by taking risks and being aggressive (Haralambos et al. 1999, p. 491). These characteristics have resulted in a patriarchal society where men dominate women and children. This model of hegemonic masculinity, however widespread it may have been, has been changed by the passing years. So now there are many challenges to this concept of masculinity, such as feminism, homosexuality and transsexuality.R. W. Connell (1983, p. 18) argues that hegemonic masculinity as a social construct is defined by men's perceptions about their bodies. The most notable measure of men's bodies is in sport, where men are required to possess both strength and skill. Without some measure of these attributes a man is seen as less masculine which will affect his view of his own masculinity. Connell (1983, p. 22-26) also identified three other ways that men use their bodies to define their masculinity. The idea that work, especially manual work is seen as properly masculine links masculinity to the body. Obviously work is for many men a day at the office so their masculinities are defined more in the private sphere of the home, where they are required to perform odd jobs around the home. A man's masculinity is also defined by his sexual relationships. As Connell (1983, p. 24) describes it "These can…settle into a pattern in which the man's arousal and control of movement is central." This situation makes the man's body dominant and the woman's subordinate, thus the man can confirm his masculinity through his powerful body. The third aspect that identifies men's bodies with masculinity is fatherhood. In becoming a father a man's body is confirmed to be masculine. These categories show that men use their bodies to define their masculinity and then continually confirm to themselves and others that they are masculine according to the hegemonic masculinity.The idea of hegemonic masculinity can be challenged through the idea of role theory. This theory has five basic features (Haralambos, 1996, p. 474); firstly a person is different from the social position or role that they occupy. This role is accompanied by a specific set of behaviours with expectations or norms that are appropriate to these behaviours. These norms are reinforced by others surrounding the role, by sanctions imposed for deviance from the role. For example, a man may conform to the hegemonic masculine role in public and then secretly cross dress at home, if he is found out he may be ridiculed and labelled by others. This idea is a criticism of hegemonic masculinity because it introduces the concept of 'agency', that is, people do not have to act out the roles assigned to them by a socialisation process or other means. This does not mean they do not conform, but rather they may end up playing a number of roles.Another challenge to hegemonic masculinity is transsexuality. Haralambos (1996, p. 482) states that most societies have a tendency to categorise people as either male or female. This is called gender attribution, which means that a person's gender is determined by the social constructs that centre on having a particular set of genitalia. Even babies born as hermaphrodites are classed into one gender or another, as society refuses to accept the possibility of alternatives to male or female gender roles. A transsexual may be born with particular genitalia that others identify as male or female but the person themselves may regard themselves as members of the opposite sex. Gender must be determined through social aspects and appearance as a person's sex is not always on display. Thus many people who are not biologically male may be perceived as male, which is in itself a threat to hegemonic masculinity.Homosexuality is also in defiance of hegemonic masculinity as heterosexuality is a dominant characteristic of hegemonic masculinity. Richmond (1996, p. 29) states, "it is assumed that male bodies are linked with male heterosexuality". She then goes on to explain that this is obviously not the case as many men are homosexual. Homosexuality is often stigmatised as unnatural so it is harder for men to be homosexual than to conform to hegemonic masculinities. This is not to say that men who identify themselves as homosexuals do not display any characteristics of hegemonic masculinity but rather that their sexuality challenges the dominant masculinity. As Haralambos (1996, p.484) argued, sexuality is socially produced. So by choosing to express themselves through an alternative to the dominant sexuality that is part of hegemonic masculinity homosexuals have challenged the dominant order.As a reaction to feminism and feminist views on patriarchy some men have created anti-sexist movements that challenge the existing social order. Haralambos (1996, p.503) has described the Men's Liberation Movement as a situation where "masculinity was presented as a simple counterpart to femininity". Thus the answer to patriarchy was countering hegemonic masculinity. This meant that these men had to start identifying with female gender roles, to get in touch with their emotions and learn how to enhance their communication skills so they can better communicate with women children and each other. One of the criticisms of men's groups is that they do in fact get in touch with their feelings etc. but they also continue to gain from being male or masculine whether they like it or not. So men's groups though they may not be very effective are still a challenge to hegemonic masculinity.Hegemonic masculinity has been described here in general terms. Following the women's movement hegemonic masculinity became more visible and so did the many other challenges to this masculinity. It can be seen, then, that hegemonic masculinity has been challenged in many ways as well as a myriad of other ways that have not been listed. Considering these challenges the term more appropriate to use may be masculinities as these challenges to hegemonic masculinity gradually become more visible and mainstream and are accepted by more people in society. Hopefully gender will one day be defined in terms other than masculine and feminine and that these present challenges to those gender roles will speed the day.ReferencesConnell, R. W. (1983). Which Way is Up? Essays on Class, Sex and Culture. Sydney: George, Allen & Unwin.Haralambos, van Krieken, Smith & Holborn. (1996). Sociology Themes and Perspectives. Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman Australia.Richmond, K. (1996). The Gendered Self. In A. Kellehear (Ed.), Social Self, Global Culture An Introduction to Sociological Ideas. (pp. 22-33). Melbourne: Oxford University Press.MasculinitySexual identity is often thought to be determined by sex, gender and/or sexuality. These terms all define different aspects of sexual identity while they also interconnect with each other. Sexual identity is concerned with a sense of the 'gendered self' (Richmond, 1996, p.22). Richmond (1996, p22), defines this self, or sense of identity, as ever changing in response to personal experiences and others' perceptions of us. The gendered self is also ever changing, as people react to stereotypes and socialisation techniques as a child, and as they are involved in relationships as adults. The term masculinity was originally considered as a definition of the male gender, however it has been used interchangeably to describe all aspects of men's sex, gender and sexuality. The concept of masculinity has changed greatly in recent times, as traditional stereotypes, ideas about men's bodies, their sexuality and sexual preferences are challenged and with the emergence of men's groups.Hegemonic masculinity has traditionally been attributed with three main characteristics. Firstly, men are seen as impregnators, who must be aggressive and compete with other males for female sexual partners. They must be able to reproduce and satisfy their sexual partners. Secondly, men are seen as providers who must protect women and their biological offspring by providing them with food and shelter. Finally, men are expected to protect their women and offspring from other men, by taking risks and being aggressive (Haralambos et al. 1999, p. 491). These characteristics have resulted in a patriarchal society where men dominate women and children. This model of hegemonic masculinity, however widespread it may have been, has been changed by the passing years. So now there are many challenges to this concept of masculinity, such as feminism, homosexuality and transsexuality.R. W. Connell (1983, p. 18) argues that hegemonic masculinity as a social construct is defined by men's perceptions about their bodies. The most notable measure of men's bodies is in sport, where men are required to possess both strength and skill. Without some measure of these attributes a man is seen as less masculine which will affect his view of his own masculinity. Connell (1983, p. 22-26) also identified three other ways that men use their bodies to define their masculinity. The idea that work, especially manual work is seen as properly masculine links masculinity to the body. Obviously work is for many men a day at the office so their masculinities are defined more in the private sphere of the home, where they are required to perform odd jobs around the home. A man's masculinity is also defined by his sexual relationships. As Connell (1983, p. 24) describes it "These can…settle into a pattern in which the man's arousal and control of movement is central." This situation makes the man's body dominant and the woman's subordinate, thus the man can confirm his masculinity through his powerful body. The third aspect that identifies men's bodies with masculinity is fatherhood. In becoming a father a man's body is confirmed to be masculine. These categories show that men use their bodies to define their masculinity and then continually confirm to themselves and others that they are masculine according to the hegemonic masculinity.The idea of hegemonic masculinity can be challenged through the idea of role theory. This theory has five basic features (Haralambos, 1996, p. 474); firstly a person is different from the social position or role that they occupy. This role is accompanied by a specific set of behaviours with expectations or norms that are appropriate to these behaviours. These norms are reinforced by others surrounding the role, by sanctions imposed for deviance from the role. For example, a man may conform to the hegemonic masculine role in public and then secretly cross dress at home, if he is found out he may be ridiculed and labelled by others. This idea is a criticism of hegemonic masculinity because it introduces the concept of 'agency', that is, people do not have to act out the roles assigned to them by a socialisation process or other means. This does not mean they do not conform, but rather they may end up playing a number of roles.Another challenge to hegemonic masculinity is transsexuality. Haralambos (1996, p. 482) states that most societies have a tendency to categorise people as either male or female. This is called gender attribution, which means that a person's gender is determined by the social constructs that centre on having a particular set of genitalia. Even babies born as hermaphrodites are classed into one gender or another, as society refuses to accept the possibility of alternatives to male or female gender roles. A transsexual may be born with particular genitalia that others identify as male or female but the person themselves may regard themselves as members of the opposite sex. Gender must be determined through social aspects and appearance as a person's sex is not always on display. Thus many people who are not biologically male may be perceived as male, which is in itself a threat to hegemonic masculinity.Homosexuality is also in defiance of hegemonic masculinity as heterosexuality is a dominant characteristic of hegemonic masculinity. Richmond (1996, p. 29) states, "it is assumed that male bodies are linked with male heterosexuality". She then goes on to explain that this is obviously not the case as many men are homosexual. Homosexuality is often stigmatised as unnatural so it is harder for men to be homosexual than to conform to hegemonic masculinities. This is not to say that men who identify themselves as homosexuals do not display any characteristics of hegemonic masculinity but rather that their sexuality challenges the dominant masculinity. As Haralambos (1996, p.484) argued, sexuality is socially produced. So by choosing to express themselves through an alternative to the dominant sexuality that is part of hegemonic masculinity homosexuals have challenged the dominant order.As a reaction to feminism and feminist views on patriarchy some men have created anti-sexist movements that challenge the existing social order. Haralambos (1996, p.503) has described the Men's Liberation Movement as a situation where "masculinity was presented as a simple counterpart to femininity". Thus the answer to patriarchy was countering hegemonic masculinity. This meant that these men had to start identifying with female gender roles, to get in touch with their emotions and learn how to enhance their communication skills so they can better communicate with women children and each other. One of the criticisms of men's groups is that they do in fact get in touch with their feelings etc. but they also continue to gain from being male or masculine whether they like it or not. So men's groups though they may not be very effective are still a challenge to hegemonic masculinity.Hegemonic masculinity has been described here in general terms. Following the women's movement hegemonic masculinity became more visible and so did the many other challenges to this masculinity. It can be seen, then, that hegemonic masculinity has been challenged in many ways as well as a myriad of other ways that have not been listed. Considering these challenges the term more appropriate to use may be masculinities as these challenges to hegemonic masculinity gradually become more visible and mainstream and are accepted by more people in society. Hopefully gender will one day be defined in terms other than masculine and feminine and that these present challenges to those gender roles will speed the day.ReferencesConnell, R. W. (1983). Which Way is Up? Essays on Class, Sex and Culture. Sydney: George, Allen & Unwin.Haralambos, van Krieken, Smith & Holborn. (1996). Sociology Themes and Perspectives. Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman Australia.Richmond, K. (1996). The Gendered Self. In A. Kellehear (Ed.), Social Self, Global Culture An Introduction to Sociological Ideas. (pp. 22-33). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. 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